OVERVIEW
-CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS OF EGOISM
-CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS OF UTILITARIANISM
-NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS
-JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
DEFINITION
-Normative ethics is the approach to ethics based on norms as the basis of evaluating actions or conducts
-It tells us about what morally ought to be as compared to what we may want to do or things we have been accustomed to doing
-For example, is it right to steal to feed the family?
-Two different types of normative ethics: consequentialist and non-consequentialist principles
CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS OF EGOISM
-The consequentialist principle determines the morality of actions based on the results of the actions
-An action is considered right if the favorable consequences exceed the unfavorable
-The consequentialist principle is also known as teleological theories, from the
Greek word telos, which means end
-The egoistic principle of ethical judgment
-Economics and role of egoism
-Limitations of egoism as an ethical principle
The Egoistic Principle of Ethical Judgment
-The view that associates morality with self-interest is referred to as egoism.
-Egoism proposes that an act is moral if and only it promotes an agent's short and/or long-term interests.
-An action that produces more benefits than costs to the decision maker's calculation compared to the other alternatives, is the right action take.
-Egoism is also recognized in psychology as psychological egoism.
-Psychological egoism is a doctrine that promotes the idea that humans are motivated by self-interest and that truly unselfish actions are unnatural. In short, human behavior is such that:
==it is naturally self-preserving,
==motivation to act is self-centered, and
==self-interest maximization is a rational behavior.
Economics and Role of Egoism
-Self-interest maximization is a form of rational behavior in business
-Rationality involves choosing the best in order to maximize self-goals such as profit, utility or even self-worth
-In economics, egoism is manifested in utility maximization that conceptually incorporates the following features:
==Self-centered welfare: a person’s welfare depends on his or her consumption of goods and services.
==Self-welfare goal: a person's goal is to maximize his or her welfare.
==Self-goal choice: the choice of action is guided by the pursuit of his or her goal.
Limitations of Egoism As an Ethical Principle
-agents cannot be impartial and objective except insofar as impartiality and objectivity further their interests
-ethical egoism ignores absolute wrongs
CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS OF UTILITARIANISM
-The utilitarian principle of ethical judgment
-Categories of utilitarian principle
-The personal, social and organizational ethics of the utilitarian principle
-Limitations of utilitarian principle
The Utilitarian Principle of Ethical Judgment
-Utilitarian is a principle, which states that we should act to produce the greatest possible balance of good or pleasure over bad for everyone affected by our action
-Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) were the first philosophers, who developed the theory explicitly
-Facts about utilitarian:
==it offers an attempt to lay down an objective principle for determining right and wrong actions through the Principle of Utility
==utilitarianism stresses upon the effects of an action
==utilitarianism separates an action from the doer
Categories of Utilitarian Principle
Two categories of the utilitarian principle:
-Act Utilitarianism
==Act utilitarianism represents classical views of right and wrong.
==It states that if any particular act in any particular situation brings more net benefits than those of any available alternative, then the action is right and should be the one we perform
-Rule Utilitarianism
==Rule utilitarianism uses past information about all acts in that class to make a rule that covers any act within that class to be either morally right or wrong
The personal, social and organizational ethics of the -utilitarian principle
==Utilitarianism does not only provide clear-cut reasoning but also overcomes self-interest conflicts
-Personal and Social Levels
==the interests of the community are the sum of the interests of its members
==Thus, based on utilitarian reasoning, an action increases the happiness of a community if it increases the total happiness of individuals in that community
-Organizational Level
==organizations have shareholders and stakeholders at the heart of their existence
==actions or decisions should advance the organizations' best interests, which are the interests of their shareholders and stakeholders
Limitations of Utilitarian Principle
Some of the questions raised against the utilitarian principle are:
-Is it really workable?
-Are some actions wrong even if they produce good?
-Is utilitarianism unjust?
NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS
-The non-consequentialist theory examines the content or nature of the actions
-Morality is based on intention or duty
-Duty here is a moral obligation towards others or actions due to someone else such as the duty to pay for what we owe
-The ethics of duty
-The personal, social and organizational ethics of duty
-Limitations of duty ethics
The Ethics of Duty
-The original proponent of the approach was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher
-Kant's ethics of duty proposes that moral imperative is a command based on goodwill rather than the calculation of consequences
-This is because morality should be based on an imperative to follow a maxim that can be universalized
The Personal, Social and Organizational Ethics of Duty
-The Personal, Social
==goodwill - only when we act out of duty that our actions have moral worth
==categorical imperative - a person should act on principles that he rationally believes should be the universal law, which should be categorically and not hypothetically defined
-Organizational Level
==ensures firm rules on morality, which cannot be simply adapted to circumstances and consequences as immoral actions are always wrong
==Kant introduced a humanistic dimension into business decisions
==Kant pointed up that motivation and principle-based actions are important
Limitations of Duty Ethics
-What Has Moral Worth?
==a moral action should be based on good will and rationally motivated and not based on inclinations, instinct, sympathy or emotions
-Is Categorical Imperative Effective?
==moral rules cannot be flexible and they have to function in all situations
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
-Ross' theory of prima facie principle
-The nature of justice
-Rawls' theory of justice
Ross' Theory of Prima Facie Principle
-obligations are prima facie, which means they are initially perceived on a first sight basis or before considering and weighing all factors relevant to the problem at hand
-seven basic types of obligations. They are the:
==>duties of fidelity - to uphold explicit and implicit promises,
==>duties of reparation - for previous wrongful acts or sins,
==>duties of gratitude,
==>duties of justice,
==>duties of beneficence - to improve conditions for others,
==>duties of self-improvement, and
==>duties not to injure anyone
The Nature of Justice
-Justice means treating everyone fairly, including fair distribution of risks and benefits
-Some Facts About Justice
==>if a person is treated unjustly, it means that the right of the person to be treated equally has been violated
==>justice is related to equality
==>justice requires that people get equal rewards or punishments for equal wrong or right
-Two major categories of justice; retributive and distributive justice
==>retributive justice - the assignment of blame and punishment proportionate to the misdeeds
==>distributive justice - the distribution of benefits in accordance with skills and needs
Principles of Justice
-Liberalism Principle of Justice
==>the government should redistribute society's goods and incomes from the rich to the poor
-Libertarian Principle of Justice
==>it is unethical to violate the inviolate rights and entitlements of individual, such as the right to own, use and disperse of property as one pleases, as long as rights of others are not infringed
-Egalitarian Principle of Justice
==>to each according to his need
Rawls' Theory of Justice
-Rawls described justice as fairness
-Rawls' theory of justice draws on two main concepts:
==>The Hypothetical Contract Approach, which consists of three main assumptions; the original position, the nature of choice, and the veil of ignorance.
==>The Principle of Justice that promotes equal rights for freedom, social and economic opportunities and distribution.
Nozick's Theory of Rights
-people have some basic inviolable rights:
==>life and liberty, and
==>basic inalienable rights, which he refers to as the Lockean rights
-The 3 main principles in this theory say that:
==>a person, who acquires wealth or property without violating the rights of others is the rightful owner of the property and free to use it as he or she wishes,
==>a person, who obtains wealth or property through legal transfer of it from another, who has legally and morally acquired the property, is the rightful owner of the property, and
==>if a person obtained or acquired wealth or property through a way that contradicts the first two principles, he or she is not the rightful owner of that property as he or she may have violated the rights of others in acquiring the property.
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